Sunday, January 26, 2020

Strategies for Effective Learning in the TESL Classroom

Strategies for Effective Learning in the TESL Classroom CHAPTER ONE:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   INTRODUCTION In Malaysian classroom, a teacher had a solid control in the classroom, the interaction pattern where the teacher selects a student to answer her questions is observed by Samuel (1982) in his study in a Malaysian school. This pattern occurred particularly when the teacher employed the questioning strategy during the course of teaching. After answering the teachers question, the student gave the turn back to the teacher (Samuel, 1982, p. 129). Hence if the teacher chooses this pattern of interaction, participation of students will be highly controlled by him or her. When having teachers in monologic interaction, the class instructional practices will be on structured, discipline but it kills the desire to learn from the child instinct and at the same time does not arouse the critical and the creativity of a child. And this is totally different from the knowledge of the policy because in Malaysia Education Policy, it is stated that a teachers jobs is to nurture the childs critical and creative thinking. When a lesson that is supposed to practice on communicative language teaching ends with the teacher instructing and being authoritative in the class, it kills the desire to learn. In his findings, Ruzlan (2007) further found that all the questions posed by the teachers were the closed-ended in nature, where the children were anticipated to arrive at certain answers expected by the teachers only. At the same time, it was found that the majority of questions set by EFL and Science as content taught in English classes were low level and factual, and not designed to encourage critical thinking on the part of learners. Again, there was a mismatch between what is stipulated by the national curriculum and how teachers actually teach in terms of posing questions. While national policy stipulates helping learners become critical thinkers, teachers seems concern with others, short term goal. For instance teachers belief about their students academic needs and what they should do is tailoring their questions to align with examination purposes at a low level factual category (Habsah Hussin, 2006). It is proven that the practice of the policy is more on finishing the structured syllabus prepared by the school curriculum division rather than full filling the philosophy of education that is in building the students with the efforts towards further developing the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonic, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral standards and who are responsible and capable of achieving high level of personal well-being as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, the society and the nation at large. With this issues, enlighten the researcher to explore the basic of the education teacher training. What has been practiced in schools reflects on the training of the teacher in teacher training institution. Is it the system or the implementation of it that caused the mismatched in the instructional practices? What is supposed to be done? What has been practiced in the teaching institution? The approaches practiced on the trainees. Does the trainees ability to pose questions and interact with the students from the pedagogical aspects and methodological approach being prompt and develop? Do the trainers play their role as the facilitator and the mediator of the knowledge in ensuring the blooming of the beginner teachers? The trainers have to play their important role well in shaping the student teacher in becoming an excellent teacher. They should model the trainees in the instructional practices in college. Being the expertise, the trainers should be well prepared with various approaches in exploring the student teacher ability in learning the English language in order to become a capable and competent English teacher. 1.1 Purpose Of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the trainers in implementing their instructional practice in order to help the trainees to become effective second language teacher. As an ESL teacher and a second language learner, the researcher believes that interaction is the key to second language learning. Second language learners need comprehensible input, need to be in situations that provide maximum personal involvement in the communication and need opportunities to use the target language in social interactions. The learning of a language centres on the use of the language for communicative purposes. Alexander (2004) suggests that the basic repertoire of classroom talk is unlikely to offer the types of cognitive challenge required to extend students thinking. In contrast, he characterizes an approach he describes as dialogic teaching which is collective, reciprocal, supportive, cumulative and purposeful. However, these types of talk are less frequently encountered in classrooms (M roz et al., 2000). Dialogic pedagogies aim for classroom interactions that involve more than superficial participation. They are exemplified by the teachers uptake of student ideas, authentic questions and the opportunity for students to change or modify the course of instruction (Nystrand et al., 2003). Teachers relinquish some measure of control of the trajectory of the lesson as pupils are offered a degree of collaborative influence over the co-construction of knowledge. 1.2 Importance of the study This study is important in four ways. First, as an eye opening to the concept of dialogic approach in the training institution and it is focusing on the classroom interaction between the trainees and the trainer in the class from the socio-cultural theory approach. Second, it gives a holistic view on what is happening in the class and what could be done to help the trainees to become competent user of the English Language learner. Third, it will trigger the needs for the trainers to have a series of cascade training organized by the Teacher Education Division, Malaysia in order to share, improve their approaches in class and vary their instructional teaching before they start teaching the trainees. Fourth, it will establish the culture of sharing and collaboration among the lecturers in the training institute. It requires the teachers to work collaboratively, to open their classroom for observation, critical reviews and discussion with peers. Lastly, it is focusing on the professional development of the trainers in providing the best approaches in exploring the best approach and varies their pedagogical approach in a second language learning class. 1.3  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Research Questions. 1. To what extent do lecturers interact with students to develop their participation in classroom discourse? 2. How are the lecturers developing the English Language competency and critical thinking skills of students through the interaction in class? 3. How do lecturers evaluate their instructional teaching practices? 4. What impact has the Communicative Language Teaching had on the teaching practices to promote a dialogic pedagogy? 5. How useful is a dialogic approach to staff professional development? 1.4   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Objectives of the study were as follows; 1. To measure the ways lecturers interact with the students to develop their participation in class.   2. To identify how lecturers develop English Language competency and critical thinking skills through the interaction in class. 3. To explore the lecturers instructional practices in second language learning class. 4. To explore the impact of the communicative language teaching policy on language learning in teacher training institutions. 5. To explore the usefulness of a dialogic approach to staff development in teacher training institutions. 1.5. Methodology Research design The focus of the study is to look at the quality of classroom interaction between the lecturer and the trainees. The literature has offered a wide array of descriptions and definitions of the case study, for example: a case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984:23), the qualitative case study can be defined as an intensive, holistic description and analysis of a single entity, phenomenon, or social unit (Merriam, 1988:16). Different from other research studies which aim for generalizable findings, case studies aim for an understanding of the particular case, in its idiosyncrasy, in its complexity (Stake, 1988:256). The case study aligns with my research objectives. It is focused on the two TESL lecturers, the researcher and their respective classes. The study is the interactive instructional practices of the two teachers, the researcher and their students. In order to provide a detailed and in-depth analytical description of the interactive features of the two cases, the researcher have to be into the research site and collected data from multiple sources in a naturalistic setting, namely, in a setting where teacher-student interaction occurs as it actually is. The main purpose of the study was not to attempt to generalize the conclusions to a larger population but to gain a thorough and in-depth understanding of the topic at issue. At the same time a combination of sociolinguistic and ethnographic perspectives has been taken to approach the above research questions.   Data was collected using a range of techniques: interviewing, classroom observation, audio- and video-taping, oral report and stimulated reflection. The sample for the researcher came from the teacher training institution that is situated in Ipoh, between the Bachelor of Education Twinning program UK-MOEM (Ministry Of Education, Malaysia) and the English Language lecturers. Many teachers, even experienced ones, are not always aware of the nature of their interactions with individual students. Consequently, one of the most important purposes of systematic classroom observation is to improve teachers classroom instruction. Feedback from individual classroom profiles derived from systematic observations has been found to help teachers understand their own strengths and weaknesses, and have consequently enabled them to significantly improve their instruction. Through feedback, teachers can become aware of how their classroom functions and thus bring about changes they desire. This process typically involves having trained observers systematically observe teachers and their students in their classrooms and later providing teachers with information about their instruction in clinical sessions. This approach is based on the assumption that teachers value accurate information that they can use to improve their instruction. CHAPTER TWO  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   LITERATURE REVIEW. This chapter will be reviewed the discussion on the theoretical ground on second language acquisition, the approach in the classroom, the student teacher interaction and the instructional pattern of communication being implemented in the classroom. 2.1  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Socio-cultural theory Introduction Vygotsky (1896-1934) is one of the Russian psychologists whose ideas have influenced the field of educational psychology and the field of education as whole. He argues for the uniqueness of the social milieu and regards sociocultural settings as the primary and determining factor in the development of higher forms of human mental activity such as voluntary attention, intentional memory, logical thought, planning, and problem solving. According to Vygotsky (1978 cited Lantolf 2000), the socio-cultural environment presents the child with a variety of tasks and demands, and engages the child in his world through the tools. In the early stages, Vygotsky claims that the child is completely dependent on other people, usually the parents, who initiate the childs actions by instructing him/her as to what to do, how to do it, as well as what not to do. Parents, as representatives of the culture and the conduit through which the culture passes into the child, actualise these instructions primarily through language. On the question of how do children then appropriate these cultural and social heritages, Vygotsky (1978 cited Wertsch 1985) states that the child acquires knowledge through contacts and interactions with people as the first step (inter-psychological plane), then later assimilates and internalises this knowledge adding his personal value to it (intra-psychological plane). This transition from social to personal property according to Vygotsky is not a mere copy, but a transformation of what had been learnt through interaction, into personal values. Vygotsky claims that this is what also happens in schools. Students do not merely copy teachers capabilities; rather they transform what teachers offer them during the processes of appropriation. Lantolf et al. (1994) indicate that the latter understanding of consciousness in the field of teaching is embodied in the concept of meta-cognition, which, according to him, incorporates functions such as planning, voluntary attention, logical memory, problem solving and evaluation. Williams and Burden (1997) claim that socio-cultural theory advocates that education should be concerned not just with theories of instruction, but with learning to learn, developing skills and strategies to continue to learn, with making learning experiences meaningful and relevant to the individual, with developing and growing as a whole person. They claim that the theory asserts that education can never be value-free; it must be underpinned by a set of beliefs about the kind of society that is being constructed and the kinds of explicit and implicit messages that will best convey those beliefs. These beliefs should be manifest also in the ways in which teachers interact with students. Socio-cultural theory has a holistic view about the act of learning. Williams Burden (1997) claim that the theory opposes the idea of the discrete teaching of skills and argues that meaning should constitute the central aspects of any unit of study. Any unit of study should be presented in all its complexity rather than skills and knowledge presented in isolation. The theory emphasizes the importance of what the learner brings to any learning situation as an active meaning-maker and problem-solver. It acknowledges the dynamic nature of the interplay between teachers, learners and tasks and provides a view of learning as arising from interactions with others. According to Ellis (2000), socio-cultural theory assumes that learning arises not through interaction but in interaction. Learners first succeed in performing a new task with the help of another person and then internalise this task so that they can perform it on their own. In this way, social interaction is advocated to mediate learning. According to Ellis, the theory goes further to say interactions that successfully mediate learning are those in which the learners scaffold the new tasks. However, one of the most important contributions of the theory is the distinction Vygotsky made between the childs actual and potential levels of development or what he calls Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Lantolf (2002), Wertsch (1985) and Shayer (2002) claim that Vygotskys introduction of the notion of the ZPD was due to his dissatisfaction with two practical issues in educational psychology: the first is the assessment of a childs intellectual abilities and the second is the evaluation of the instructional practices. With respect to the first issue, Vygotsky believes that the established techniques of testing only determine the actual level of development, but do not measure the potential ability of the child. In his view, psychology should address the issue of predicting a childs future growth, what he/she not yet is. Because of the value Vygotsky attached to the importance of predicting a childs future capabilities, he formulated the concept of ZPD which he defines as the distance between a childs actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving, and the higher level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in co llaboration with more capable peers Wertsch (1985, P. 60). According to him, ZPD helps in determining a childs mental functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that are currently in an embryonic state, but will mature tomorrow. Moreover, he claims that the study of ZPD is also important, because it is the dynamic region of sensitivity in which the transition from inter-psychological to intra-psychological functioning takes place. Shayer (2002) claims that a crucial feature of learning according to Vygotsky is that it creates a ZPD, that is to say, learning awakens a variety of internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with his peers. Once these processes are internalised, they become part of the childs independent developmental achievement. Vygotsky advocates that ZPD is not the role of instruction alone, but developmental (biological) factors do have a role to play. It is jointly determined by the childs level of development and the form of instruction involved. According to him, instruction and development do not directly coincide, but represent two processes that exist in a very complex interrelationship. He argues that the child can operate only within certain limits that are strictly fixed by the state of the childs development and intellectual possibilities. Mediation As in Feuerteins theory (Williams and Burden 1997), mediation is central to Vygotskys socio-cultural theory. Mediation according to Vygotsky refers to the part played by other significant people in the learners lives, people who enhance their learning by selecting and shaping the learning experiences presented to them. Vygotsky (1978 cited Wertsch 1985) claims that the secret of effective learning lies in the nature of the social interaction between two or more people with different levels of skills and knowledge. This involves helping the learner to move into and through the next layer of knowledge or understanding. Vygotsky also regard tools as mediators and one of the important tools is language. The use of language to help learners move into and through their ZPD is of great significance to socio-cultural theory. Kozulin et al. (1995) claim that Vygotsky considers the learning process as not a solitary exploration of the environment by the child on his own, but as a process of the childs appropriation of the methods of actions that exist in a given culture. In the process of appropriation, symbolic tools or artefacts play a crucial role. Kozulin (2002) categorises mediators into two categories: human and symbolic. According to him, human mediation usually tries to answer the question concerning what kind of involvement on the part of the adult is effective in enhancing the childs performance; while symbolic mediation deals with what changes in the childs performance can be brought about by the introduction of the child to symbolic tools-mediators. Scaffolding According to Donato (1994) scaffolding is a concept that derives from cognitive psychology and L1 research. It states that in a social interaction, a knowledgeable participant can create by means of speech and supportive conditions in which the student (novice) can participate in and extend current skills and knowledge to a high level of competence. In an educational context, however, scaffolding is an instructional structure whereby the teacher models the desired learning strategy or task then gradually shifts responsibility to the students. According to McKenzie, (1999) scaffolding provides the following advantages: a) It provides clear directions for students b) It clarifies purpose of the task c) It keeps students on task d) It offers assessment to clarify expectations e) It points students to worthy sources f) It reduces uncertainty, surprise and disappointment g) It delivers efficiency h) It creates momentum According to Rogoff (1990 in Donato, 1994), scaffolding implies the experts active stance towards continual revisions of the scaffolding in response to the emerging capabilities of the learner, and a learners error or limited capabilities can be a signal for the adult to upgrade the scaffolding. As the learner begins to take on more responsibility for the task, the adult dismantles the scaffold indicating that the child has benefited from the assisted performance and internalised the problem-solving processes provided by the previous scaffold episode. Wertsch (1979a cited Donato 1994) claims that scaffold performance is a dialogically constituted inter-psychological mechanism that promotes the learners internalisation of knowledge co-constructed in shared activity. Donato (1994) advocates that in an L2 classroom, collaborative work among language learners provides the same opportunity for scaffold help as in expert-novice relationships in the everyday setting. Van Lier (1988 cited Do nato 1994) states that L2 teaching methodology can benefit from a study of L1 scaffolding to understand how classroom activities already tacitly employ such tactics. The study of scaffolding in L2 research according to Donato has focused exclusively on how language teachers provide guided assistance to learners. 2.2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Classroom interaction in socio-cultural theory A socio-cultural theory was pioneered by Vgotsky (1978) and the core of the theory is the proposition that cognitive development originates in social interaction. Vgotsky (1981) formulated the trajectory of cognitive development as from the inter-psychological plane to the intra-psychological plane by saying: Any function in the childs cultural development appears twice, or in two planes: first, it appears on the social plane, and then on the psychological plane; first it appears between people as an inter-psychological category, and then within the child as an intra-psychological category. This is equally true with regard to voluntary attention, logical memory and the formation of concepts and the development of volition (p.163). In other words, learning first takes place between a child and an expert (e.g. the childs parent) when they engage in joint under-taking. The expert assists the young child to appropriate his greater knowledge or skills in relation to the task at hand and gradually hands over the task to the young child. The child internalizes what he gained and transformed it into his own resources that can be used for individual thinking and problem solving. It is mainly mediated by means of talk. 2.3.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Classroom interactions Constructivism Related to Questioning and Conversation Constructivism plays a key role in effective classroom conversations and differs from classrooms filled with traditional conversations. Schulte (1996) argued that Constructivist teachers must observe the students actions and listen to their views without making judgments or trying to correct answers (p. 27). This differs from the traditional classroom where students are passive learners and wait for the teacher to give correct answers (Schulte, 1996). In contrast, constructivist classroom teachers must listen to students and help make connections between what they are thinking and what others are thinking during the same experience (Duckworth, 2006). Teachers must also make connections for learners between the learners understandings and the teachers understandings (Duckworth, 2006). Instead of giving lectures and expecting students to regurgitate what has been lectured, teachers must show students how to listen to others and question ideas when they are unknown (Duckworth, 2006). Teachers must make their actions known to students by using explicit language, modelling the thinking process, and allowing students to think aloud about new ideas (Bodrova Leong, 1996). Lambert, etal. (2002) supported the idea of sharing thoughts and ideas by stating, In a constructivist conversation, each individual comes to understand the purpose of talk, since the relationship is one of reciprocity (p. 65). Constructivist teaching allows students to actively participate in their learning versus the traditional idea of passively receiving information. It allows teachers and students to synthesize their knowledge in order to create new meanings. Classroom discourse based on a constructivists view of learning involves student participation. This was explained by Hartman (1996) when stated, As seen through Vygotskys views, classroom discourse is socially meaningful activity because it creates a situation in which all students can and are encouraged to participate not only by the teacher, but by the other students as well (p. 99). Students are encouraged to share their ideas with others to help clarify their thoughts and make adjustments to their understandings (Schulte, 1996). Student participation means that teachers hand over control of classroom conversations and allow students to express their thinking aloud. This results in the student having the final word at times and helps the student create his or her own understanding instead of receiving the teachers understanding of ideas (Duckworth, 2006). When students are allowed to explain their thinking they must learn to be explicit and clear so others will understand them; t hat results in deeper understanding (Bodrova Leong, 1996). Student participation during classroom discourse allows students to practice problem-solving and decision-making skills that will help improve their leadership ability as adults. In Dantonio and Beisenherz (2001) book Learning to Question, Questioning to Learn, constructivist classroom discussions are referred to as instructional conversations. In an instructional conversation, a teacher is skilful in facilitating talk that promotes student thinking. Students require guided practice in order to respond in a manner that leads to a deeper understanding of subject matter. With guidance, students learn to enhance the quality of their thinking through the teachers effective use of questions. In line with Vygotskys zone of proximal development, instructional conversations provide students with opportunities to do today with help what can be done independently tomorrow. Teachers and students work together to create new meanings and understandings through effective questioning and higher level learner responses. Classroom discourse holds various meanings but definitions found in the literature hold a common ground: classroom discourse is talk between two or more persons that may or may not lead to a new understanding (Cazden, 2001; Mroz, Smith Hardman, 2000). Two definitions of classroom discourse were given by Cazden (1998). She described discourse as conversations where participants are having the same talk. Discourse was also described as an understanding that occurs when participants take different positions in different talks at the same time. In their research findings, Edwards and Mercer (1987) described classroom discourse as the talk that occurs between two or more people that usually consists of a teacher and one or more students. Additional researchers defined classroom discourse in their studies. Skidmore, Perez-Parent, and Arnfield (2003) proclaimed that classroom discourse contrasts to every day conversation because students must wait for their turn while patiently raising their hand. In everyday conversation people speak to one another at will to express their ideas and understandings. Similarly, Townsend and Pace (2005) noted that classroom discourse that is directed by one person, usually the teacher, results in students repeating predetermined ideas or mere facts. It contrasts to classrooms where students are given opportunities to explore higher level questions and engage in meaning making activities (Townsend Pace, 2005). Skidmore (1999) referred to traditional classroom discourse as, pedagogical dialogue, in which someone who knows the truth instructs someone who is in error, and which is characterised by a tendency towards the use of authoritative discourse on the part of the teacher (p. 17). All of these examples of classroom discourse vary from everyday conversations because students are subjected to waiting for a turn to give factual information. Researchers of classroom discourse refer to teacher dictated conversations as a traditional pattern of talk. 2.4  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Research Studies on Classroom Interaction Many studies on classroom interactions focused on teacher questions, learner responses, or the effect of questions on student achievement. Studies by Redfield and Rousseau (1981), Chin (2006), Wells and Arauz (2006), Boyd and Rubin (2006), Myhill and Dunkin (2005), and Schleppenbach, Perry, and Miller (2007) were reviewed, compared, and contrasted. Redfield and Rousseau (1981) analyzed 20 studies on the effect of teacher questioning on student achievement. Redfield and Rousseau (1981) wanted to create a meta-analysis of data from the studies to determine the impact of program monitoring, experimental validity, and level of teacher questioning. All of the studies were experimental or quasi-experimental in nature. Quantitative tools were used to measure the effect size in each study. Redfield and Rousseau (1981) completed their research by stating, Hence, it may be concluded that small-scale studies of teacher questioning behaviour have allowed for greater experimental control than large-scale studies (p. 242).It was found that teachers that predominately used higher cognitive questions had a positive effect on student achievement, and teachers that were trained in effective questions and used higher cognitive questions greatly affected their students achievement. Chin (2006) conducted a study focused on teacher questions and feedback to learner responses during science lessons. She wanted to analyze the type of talk that occurs during science lessons, find out how teachers use questioning to engage students, and identify the various types of feedback teachers give to learners during an initiation response-feedback exchange of talk. Chin (2006) gathered data from two science classrooms in Singapore during 14 lessons. To explain the data analysis, Chin (2006) explained, A questioning-based discourse analytical framework was developed for the description and analysis of classroom discourse in science, with a focus on questioning based practices (p. 1334). It was found that when the teacher provided feedback in the form of subsequent questions that built upon a students response, acknowledgement of a students response, or a restatement of a students response, students responded at a level beyond recall. Chin (2006) concluded that Students can be stretched mentally throu

Saturday, January 18, 2020

Us History Essential Questions on Thomas Jefferson

Chapter 11 Essential Questions 1) Why does Kennedy refer to the case of Marbury vs. Madison as â€Å"epochal? † Describe the short and long-term ramifications to the decision. The case of Marbury vs. Madison established judicial review of acts of Congress to determine if they are unconstitutional. It was so epochal because had it not established judicial review, Congress would be free to pass laws that are completely unconstitutional and a violation of the rights set in place by the first ten amendments. It brought order out of the chaos that occurred when Adams appointed the Midnight Judges.Over the long term, it has affected many congressional bills that if passed, would not be constitutional. 2)What basis did Thomas Jefferson have for believing that American trade could be used as a diplomatic tool? Explain. Trade could be used as a diplomatic tool in many ways. If America stopped trading with certain countries, the thought was that those countries would cooperate with the demands made by Americans. America would trade with anyone who met their demands. The problem with this is that when America did use trade as a diplomatic tool to get the English and French to cooperate with their demands, and America ended up being hurt.They stopped trading with England and France, as well as any other country who traded with England and France. England and France did not completely depend on American trade for their economy, so they were unaffected. These laws were called the Embargo of 1807. Jefferson tried to fix this with the Nonintercourse Act, which stated America would cease trade with just England and France. This also ended up being a failure, so James Madison passed Macon’s Bill #2, which said that America would trade with whoever met their demands first.This also was repealed, and America went back to open trade with England and France. 3) List at least three key principles of government advanced by Thomas Jefferson and the Anti-Federalists before 1800. Describe how these ideals fared during Jefferson’s administration. Were they translated into public policy? Explain. The first principle of government advanced by Jefferson and the Anti-Federalists before 1800 was the exploration and organization of Western Land set by the Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance of 1787, part of the Articles of Confederation.These laws held through the Jefferson presidency and were largely the basis of exploration in the future. The second was the Bill of Rights set forth in the Constitution. They guaranteed the natural rights of citizens in the first ten amendments. The were maintained through the presidency and although debated, are in tact today. The third principle are the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. They called for state’s rights and supported nullification, which meant that a state can nullify a law that the federal government passes.This did not become public policy mainly because of Federalist opposition. I t was fought for in the Civil war, and today states have to obey federal law. 4) Jefferson said â€Å"The day France takes possession of New Orleans we must marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation. † Why was he so alarmed? New Orleans was a key port on the Mississippi that gave the possessor a substantial amount of power in that area. France would gain critical access to the Mississippi River and have the ability to travel about it and maybe take land along the way.Possession of New Orleans would also give it access to western land, which is something America was after. America would have to team up with the British to combat the French, who would become extremely powerful with New Orleans. 5)Assess the Jeffersonian presidency. What do you think were his three most important legacies? Jefferson was successful in the fact that he was moderate in getting rid of the opposing party, the federalists. If a Federalist was doing a good job, they stayed. He also was smart to n ot get rid of Hamilton’s financial system. One of his most important legacies was the Louisiana Purchase.Although he believed it to be unconstitutional, he could not pass up the offer from Napoleon. The Louisiana Purchase more than doubled the size of America, which provided many opportunities in resources for the future. Another legacy was the defeat of the barbary pirates. Prior to the defeat, these pirates were paid not to attack American ships. Despite the size of the American navy, called the â€Å"mosquito fleet,† they were defeated and American ships were safe. His final legacy was the Embargo of 1807. It led America to an economic mess that James Madison eventually inherited.

Friday, January 10, 2020

Health Care Physicians In Kuwait Health And Social Care Essay

Introduction: Domestic force against adult females is an of import public wellness job. The medical practician ‘s personal value system and beliefs about domestic force can play an of import function to cover with job and supply support to battered adult females. Aim: The current survey was formulated to uncover attitude of doctors towards domestic force against adult females and factors impacting this attitude. Methods: To accomplish such purposes, a sample of 565 doctors were interviewed out of 899 doctors selected for this survey with an overall response rate of 62.8 % . The mark population for this survey was all doctors in the primary wellness attention centres in Kuwait. Consequences: The consequences of the current survey revealed that doctors tended to hold a comparatively low positive overall attitude mark towards force against adult females ( 60.75 + 13.16 % ) , with a average per centum mark of 42.36 + 15.37 % for relationship between spouses domain, 75.73 + 21.80 % for good grounds to hit married womans domain, and 58.39 + 17.11 % for direction of domestic force sphere. Female doctors tended to hold a higher positive attitude mark than males ( 62.9 + 13.36 % compared with 58.3 + 12.52 % , P & A ; lt ; 0.001 ) every bit good as for each attitude sphere. Years spent at the current occupation negatively correlated with the entire attitude mark of doctors towards domestic force against adult females. Decision: There is a great demand to better attitude of doctors about domestic force, particularly against adult females through decently planned preparation plans so that a better medical attention and support of beat-up adult females can be achieved. Cardinal words: Domestic – force – Women – Physicians-AttitudeIntroductionGender-based force is widely recognized as an of import public wellness job, both because of the acute morbidity and mortality associated with assault and its longer-term impact on adult females ‘s wellness, including chronic hurting, gynecologic jobs, sexually-transmitted diseases, depression, post-traumatic emphasis upsets, and self-destruction. ( 1-3 ) Abused adult females who have hapless physical and mental wellness suffer more hurts and utilize more medical resources than non-abused adult females. ( 1,2,4 ) Health attention establishments can do important parts to turn toing force against adult females by back uping both doctors and victims. ( 3 ) Health attention workers can play an indispensable function to cover with this wellness job through proper direction of beat-up adult females and supplying full support. However, wellness attention workers might portion the same cultural norms and biass with victims or culprits of interpersonal force, which would impact their professional attitudes. Furthermore, some doctors might believe that interpersonal force is a private household affair and non a wellness issue. In add-on, while the happenings allocated to this field are unequal, some wellness attention workers might experience despairing, taking them to professional reluctance. ( 4-6 ) Thus the following survey was formulated to accomplish the undermentioned aims: Estimate attitude of doctors towards domestic force ( DV ) against adult females and Reveal factors impacting attitude of do ctors about domestic force against adult females.MethodsAn experimental cross-sectional survey design was adopted for this survey. The survey was carried out in the primary wellness attention centres in Kuwait. All doctors available during the field work of the survey in the primary wellness attention centres were the mark population of this survey. A sum of 78 wellness centres are distributed over five wellness territories in Kuwait. The entire figure of doctors was 899 ; out of these, merely 565 agreed to portion in the survey with a response rate of 62.8 % . The survey covered the period January to August 2010. Data were collected over three months get downing from the May to July, 2010. Datas of this survey was collected through a specially designed self-administered questionnaire. This questionnaire consisted of several subdivisions. The first subdivision dealt with socio-demographic features, including age, sex, figure of old ages in pattern, educational making, current occupation, old ages at current work and wage. Three inquiries dealt with prevalence of force ; one in Kuwait, one in other Arab states and the last one dealt with prevalence overall the universe. The attitude graduated table consisted of 18 inquiries covering three sub-domains. The first sub-domain dealt with the relationship between spouses and consisted of 6 inquiries, while the 2nd sub-domain the hitting married womans by their hubbies and formed of 8 inquiries, the last sub-domain dealt with direction of DV and consisted of three inquiries. The causes of DV consisted of 14 inquiries ; of these five covered the single features of culprit, two covered the relationship, three dealt with the commu nity factors, and 4 inquiries reflected the social factors including traditions, civilization and wonts. Another subdivision of the interviewing questionnaire covered the expected result of domestic force. This portion consisted of 34 inquiries classified as follows: physical wellness ( 6 inquiries ) , chronic conditions ( 5 inquiries ) , mental wellness ( 8 inquiries ) , negative wellness behaviour ( 5 inquiries ) , generative wellness ( 7 inquiries ) , and fatal result ( 3 inquiries ) . A pilot survey was carried out on 30 doctors ( non included in the concluding survey ) . This survey was formulated with the following aims: prove the lucidity, pertinence of the survey tools, accommodate the purpose of the work to existent feasibleness, place the troubles that may be faced during the application, every bit good as survey all the processs and activities of the administrative facets. Besides, the clip of finishing the questionnaire was estimated during this pilot survey to be 10 proceedingss. The necessary alterations harmonizing to the consequences obtained were done, so some statements were reworded. Besides, the construction of the questionnaire sheet was reformatted to ease informations aggregation. A pre-coded sheet was used. All inquiries were coded before informations aggregation. This facilitates both informations entry and confirmation every bit good as reduces the chance of mistakes during informations entry. Datas were fed to the computing machine straight from the questionnaire without an intermediate informations transportation sheets. The Excel plan was used for informations entry. A file for informations entry was prepared and structured harmonizing to the variables in the questionnaire. After informations were fed to the Excel plan ; several methods were used to verify informations entry. These methods included the followers: simple frequence, cross-tabulation, every bit good as manual alteration of entered informations. Percentage mark was calculated for the entire attitude mark every bit good as for each sphere of attitude. Before ciphering the amount of mark ; the mark of negative inquiries was reversed. The per centum mark was calculated as follows: amount of mar k X 100 / figure of points. The amount was treated to give a scope of 100 % with a lower limit of nothing and a upper limit of 100.Statistical analysis:Before analysis ; informations were imported to the Statistical Package for Social Sciences ( SPSS ) which was used for both informations analysis and tabular presentation. Descriptive ( count, per centum, lower limit, upper limit, arithmetic mean, average and standard divergence ) and analytic steps ( Mann Whitney Z trial and Spearman correlativity coefficient ) were utilized. The degree of significance selected for this survey was P ? 0.05. All the necessary blessings for transporting out the research were obtained. The Ethical Committee of the Kuwaiti Ministry of Health approved the research. A written format explicating the intent of the research was prepared and signed by the doctor before get downing the interview. In add-on, the intent and importance of the research were discussed with the manager of the wellness centre.ConsequenceTable I portrays socio-demographic features of studied doctors. Females constituted 53.1 % of the studied sample while the remainder were males ( 46.9 % ) with an mean age of 39.95 + 9.07 old ages and an norm of 13.04 + 8.42 old ages at the current occupation. Kuwaiti doctors constituted 43.2 % of the entire sample while 51.5 % were other Arab doctors. The bulk were married ( 87.3 % ) while the remainder were presently individual ( 3.0 % divorced or widow and 9.7 % ne'er married before ) . Out of the entire sample, 89.2 % were working as a registrar, while the remainder ( 10.8 % ) were ei ther specializers or advisers. Those keeping a unmarried man grade constituted 31.7 % , while the bulk ( 68.3 % ) were keeping a higher educational certification. The wage for the bulk of doctors ( 82.1 % ) was more than 1000 KD. Table II shows perceptual experience of doctors about prevalence of DV against adult females in Kuwait, other Arab states and worldwide. Doctors tended to gauge lower prevalence of domestic force in Kuwait than other Arab states or worldwide as 43.8 % of them stated that domestic force against adult females is more than 20 % while 69 % and 58.8 % stated the same prevalence in other Arab states and worldwide severally. Table III demonstrates attitude of doctors towards DV against adult females. The highest average per centum mark ( 75.73 + 21.80 % ) was that for attitude sphere two covering with striking of married womans in different fortunes, followed by sphere three covering with proper direction of DV ( 58.39 + 17.11 % ) . Relationship between spouses ( domain one ) came on the underside of the list with a mean of 42.36 + 15.37 % . The overall attitude average per centum mark was 60.75 + 13.16 % with a average per centum mark of 61.1 % . Table IV shows the relationship between attitude towards DV and socio-demographic features of doctors. Female doctors tended to hold a significantly higher average per centum tonss than males for relationship sphere ( 45.1 + 15.53 compared with 39.3 + 14.62 % , P & A ; lt ; 0.001 ) , hitting sphere ( 77.9 + 22.16 compared with 73.3 + 21.15 % , P = 0.001 ) , every bit good as the direction sphere ( 59.6 + 17.07 compared with 59.6 + 17.07 % , P = 0.044 ) . Overall, female doctors had a significantly higher attitude score than male doctors ( 62.9 + 13.36 compared with 58.3 + 12.52 % , P & A ; lt ; 0.001 ) . Kuwaiti doctors had a significantly higher mark than non-Kuwaiti for the relationship sphere ( 44.4 + 15.31 compared with 40.8 + 15.26 % , P = 0.007 ) , while no important differences were noticed between them with respect to other spheres. Job of the doctor significantly impacted merely on hitting attitude sphere where specializer doctors had a higher average per centum mark ( 82.5 + 16.96 % ) than registrar doctors ( 74.9 + 22.19 % , P = 0.015 ) . Marital position and degree of instruction did non hold any important impact on the different spheres of doctors ‘ attitude towards DV against adult females. A negative correlativity was found between continuance at work in old ages from one side and the overall attitude mark on the other side, ( R = -0.115 ) . Table I: Socio-demographic features of doctorsFictional characterNumber%AgeMin-Max 24.0 – 65 Mean + SD 39.95 + 9.07Sexual activityMale 265 46.9 Female 300 53.1NationalityKuwaiti 244 43.2 Arab 291 51.5 Non Arab 30 5.3Marital positionSingle 55 9.7 Married 493 87.3 Divorced / Widowed 17 3.0QualificationBachelor grade 179 31.7 Master/PhD/Board 386 68.3OccupationRegistrar 504 89.2 Specialist 61 10.8Old ages at workMin-Max 0.1 – 40 Mean + SD 13.04 + 8.42Income ( KD )& A ; lt ; 1000 101 17.9 1000 – 239 42.3 & A ; gt ; 1500 225 39.8 Table II: Percept of doctors about prevalence of domestic force in Kuwait, Arab states and worldwide Prevalence of Domestic force& A ; lt ; 1 %1-5 %6-10 %11-20 %21-30 %& A ; gt ; 30 %Kuwait ( n=484 ) 11 ( 2.3 ) 31 ( 6.4 ) 94 ( 19.4 ) 136 ( 28.1 ) 115 ( 23.8 ) 97 ( 20.0 ) Other Arab states ( n=480 ) 5 ( 1.0 ) 12 ( 2.5 ) 47 ( 9.8 ) 85 ( 17.7 ) 180 ( 37.5 ) 151 ( 31.5 ) Worldwide ( n=469 ) 4 ( 0.9 ) 36 ( 7.7 ) 53 ( 11.3 ) 100 ( 21.3 ) 114 ( 24.3 ) 162 ( 34.5 ) Datas are presented as figure ( % ) Table Three: Attitude of doctors towards domestic forceAttitude sphereStronglydisagreeDisagreeImpersonalAgreeStrongly holdRelationship between spouses ( A1 )A good married woman obeys her hubby even if she disagrees 32 ( 5.7 ) 92 ( 16.3 ) 134 ( 23.7 ) 201 ( 35.6 ) 106 ( 18.8 ) Family jobs should merely be discussed with people in the household 15 ( 2.7 ) 57 ( 10.1 ) 70 ( 12.4 ) 232 ( 41.1 ) 191 ( 33.8 ) It is of import for a adult male to demo his married woman who is the foreman 38 ( 6.7 ) 88 ( 15.6 ) 103 ( 18.2 ) 225 ( 39.8 ) 111 ( 19.6 ) A adult female should be able to take her ain friends even if her hubby disagrees 75 ( 13.3 ) 177 ( 31.3 ) 141 ( 25.0 ) 119 ( 21.1 ) 53 ( 9.4 ) It is a married woman ‘s duty to hold sex with her hubby even if she does non experience like it 102 ( 18.1 ) 154 ( 27.3 ) 147 ( 26.0 ) 114 ( 20.2 ) 48 ( 8.5 ) If a adult male mistreats his married woman, others outside of the household should step in 108 ( 19.1 ) 118 ( 20.9 ) 103 ( 18.2 ) 153 ( 27.1 ) 83 ( 14.7 ) ( Min – Max ) Mean + SD [ Median ] ( 0.0 – 87.5 ) 42.36 + 15.37 [ 41.7 ]A adult male have a good ground to hit his married woman if ( A2 ) :She does non finish her family work to his satisfaction 367 ( 65.0 ) 147 ( 26.0 ) 22 ( 3.9 ) 15 ( 2.7 ) 14 ( 2.5 ) She disobeys him 266 ( 47.1 ) 175 ( 31.0 ) 53 ( 9.4 ) 44 ( 7.8 ) 27 ( 4.8 ) She refuse to hold sexual relation with him 316 ( 55.9 ) 164 ( 29.0 ) 51 ( 9.0 ) 14 ( 2.5 ) 20 ( 3.5 ) She asks him whether he has other miss friends 331 ( 58.6 ) 159 ( 28.1 ) 45 ( 8.0 ) 16 ( 2.8 ) 14 ( 2.5 ) He suspects that she is unfaithful 274 ( 48.5 ) 170 ( 30.1 ) 72 ( 12.7 ) 29 ( 5.1 ) 20 ( 3.5 ) He finds out that she has been unfaithful 183 ( 32.4 ) 91 ( 16.1 ) 79 ( 14.0 ) 130 ( 23.0 ) 82 ( 14.5 ) She exposes hubby failings 237 ( 41.9 ) 137 ( 24.2 ) 86 ( 15.2 ) 61 ( 10.8 ) 44 ( 7.8 ) She lies to her hubby 210 ( 37.2 ) 154 ( 27.3 ) 87 ( 15.4 ) 66 ( 11.7 ) 48 ( 8.5 ) ( Min – Max ) Mean + SD [ Median ] ( 0.0 – 100.0 ) 75.73 + 21.80 [ 78.1 ]direction of domestic force ( A3 )Womans who experienced physical force must take professional aid 9 ( 1.6 ) 16 ( 2.8 ) 32 ( 5.7 ) 283 ( 50.1 ) 225 ( 39.8 ) Health professionals can non assist domestic force victims, as they will return to the same societal environment 75 ( 13.3 ) 161 ( 28.5 ) 92 ( 16.3 ) 152 ( 26.9 ) 85 ( 15.0 ) Domestic force is a private issue, and patients are ashamed to speak about it 36 ( 6.4 ) 80 ( 14.2 ) 60 ( 10.6 ) 281 ( 49.7 ) 108 ( 19.1 ) Covering with domestic force agencies interfering with privateness of the household 155 ( 27.4 ) 233 ( 41.2 ) 86 ( 15.2 ) 55 ( 9.7 ) 36 ( 6.4 ) ( Min – Max ) Mean + SD [ Median ] ( 6.3 – 100.0 ) 58.39 + 17.11 [ 56.3 ] ( A ) Entire Attitude Score ( Min – Max ) Mean + SD [ Median ] ( 18.1 – 91.7 ) 60.75 + 13.16 [ 61.1 ] Datas are presented as figure ( natural % ) Table Four: Relation between attitude sphere tonss ( average + SD ) and socio-demographic features of doctorsCharacteristicAttitude DomainEntire mark( A )Relationship( A1 )Hiting( A2 )Management ( A3 )Sexual activityMale 39.3 + 14.6 73.3 + 21.2 56.9 + 17.1 58.3 + 12.5 Female 45.1 + 15.5 77.9 + 22.2 59.6 + 17.1 62.9 + 13.4 Phosphorus & A ; lt ; 0.001* 0.001* 0.044* & A ; lt ; 0.001*NationalityKuwaiti 44.4 + 15.3 76.4 + 21.7 59.5 + 16.3 61.9 + 13.3 Non Kuwaiti 40.8 + 15.3 75.2 + 21. 9 57.5 + 17.7 59.8 + 13.0 Phosphorus 0.007* 0.540 0.0501 0.060Marital StatusSingle 42.3 + 15.5 75.5 + 22.7 59.2 + 18.3 60.8 + 13.62 Married 42.4 + 15.4 75.8 + 21.7 58.3 + 16.9 60.7 + 13.11 Phosphorus 0.899 0.991 0.659 0.871EducationBachelor 41.4 + 13.4 77.5 + 21.6 57.9 + 16.3 61.1 + 12.10 Higher 42.8 + 16.2 74.9 + 21.9 58.6 + 17.5 60.6 + 13.64 Phosphorus 0.378 0.169 0.769 0.712OccupationRegistrar 42.3 + 15.3 74.9 + 22.2 58.1 + 17.4 60.3 + 13.3 Specialist 43.1 + 16.1 82.5 + 17.0 60.6 + 14.3 64.5 + 11.6 Phosphorus 0.695 0.015* 0.172 0.034*Age ( R )-0.065 -0.019 -0.040 -0.053Old ages at work ( R )-0.054 -0.106* -0.043 -0.115* * Significant, P & A ; lt ; 0.05. R = Spearman correlativity coefficientDiscussionDV is a major societal and medical job. It occurs in all states irrespective of societal, economic, cultural or spiritual values. Battered adult females seek aid in the wellness attention installations due to both physical and psychological harm that they suffer due to the force they experience. ( 7,8 ) The medical practicians ‘ personal value system and beliefs about DV can play an of import function. A survey in an exigency section in Hong Kong reported that the physicians found it hard to optimally pull off victims of DV because of the belief in the importance of keeping household integrity and that DV is a private issue. ( 9 ) Fewer physicians were found to test for DV believing that intercession is less successful than for other behavioral hazards such as smoke. ( 10 ) It seems that a positive attitude towards DV can play a important function for both diagnosis and pull offing medical results of force. Thus the current research was formulated to uncover attitude of primary wellness attention physicians towards force against adult females and identify factors impacting spheres of attitude. To accomplish these aims ; 565 primary wellness attention doctors were interviewed utilizing a specially designed questionnaire. The consequences of this survey revealed that more than half the doctors were married ( 87.3 % ) , Non-Kuwait ( 56.8 % ) , females ( 53.1 % ) with an mean age of 39.95 + 9.07 old ages and spent 13.04 + 8.42 old ages, on the norm, at the current occupation. Doctors tended to describe lower prevalence of DV against adult females in Kuwait followed, while they stated high rates in the other Arab states with an intermediate figure for world-wide prevalence. Other surveies, besides revealed that consciousness of primary doctors about the prevalence of DV is hapless. ( 11-15 ) A multi-country survey carried out by WHO showed that 15 – 71 % of adult females experient physical and / or sexual force by an intimate spouse at some point in their lives. ( 16 ) Another survey carried out on American Indian adult females revealed a figure every bit high as 80 % . ( 8 ) The differences among these surveies might be attributed to the nature of the job itself as some adult females tend to hide the event and prefer non coverage. Besides, the disagreement in force definition every bit good as the adoptive attack for gauging force happening whether one-year or life clip happening might explicate the differences of domestic force prevalence among these surveies. The consequences of the current survey besides revealed that doctors tended to hold a comparatively low positive overall attitude mark towards force against adult females ( 60.75 + 13.16 % ) , with a average per centum mark of 42.36 + 15.37 % for relationship between spouses domain, 75.73 + 21.80 % for good grounds to hit married womans domain, and 58.39 + 17.11 % for direction of domestic force sphere. This low mark can be attributed to cultural and social values in eastern states, as doctors themselves are the merchandises of the current cultural tradition. ( 17 ) Besides, hapless cognition and deficient preparation can be behind this low positive attitude. ( 18-22 ) Absence of clear guidelines to cover with DV at the degree of the primary wellness attention centres and inaccessibility of specific intervention prescription can besides significantly lend to this low attitude. ( 23 ) Low attitude of primary wellness attention physicians towards DV can sabotage their abilities to name and decently manage battered adult females, particularly with respect to implementing suited intercession steps. Female doctors tended to hold a higher positive mark on all the studied attitude spheres. Female doctors were reported to province the most positive encouraging attitude towards DV against adult females when compared with male doctors. ( 24 ) Rose and Saunders suggested that female suppliers may hold more empathetic attitudes towards victims of interpersonal force. ( 25 ) Besides, there is an increasing research demoing that preventative attention services for females rendered by female professionals increases the acceptableness and efficiency of medical services. ( 26,27 ) Besides Kuwaiti doctors had a significantly higher positive attitude for relationship between spouses than the non-Kuwaiti doctors. Old ages spent at current work were significantly negatively correlated with striking of adult females sphere and the entire attitude mark, bespeaking that with addition in old ages at work there is an attach toing lessening in the specified attitude spheres. However, matrimonial posi tion and degree of instruction, and age did non demo any important relation with the attitude domains. Education did non turn out to alter the attitude toward domestic force. ( 28 ) Some surveies did non demo any important relationship between attitude toward interpersonal force from one side and business, old ages of employment, and matrimonial position on the other side. ( 24 ) Empathic and emotionally supportive behaviour of doctors will promote beat-up adult females to unwrap the force they suffered. This can ensue in supplying a high quality attention services and guarantee efficient use of the available resources to cover with force. Plans for preparation of doctors to beef up their cognition, attitude and pattern towards domestic force against adult females are needed in Kuwait to better the medical services administered to buffet adult females

Thursday, January 2, 2020

Global Warming a Global Responsibility - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2913 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2019/03/14 Category Ecology Essay Level High school Tags: Global Warming Essay Did you like this example? Introduction A famous scientist, Bill Nye, made a glaring statement: †Climate change is happening, humans are causing it, and I think this is perhaps the most serious environmental issue facing us† Climate change or global warming is a serious and undeniable issue that is plaguing the planet. Global warming is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earths atmosphere usually connected to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutants. Ten of the last thirteen years were the hottest on record. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Global Warming a Global Responsibility" essay for you Create order If the dangerous patterns of global warming continue to occur, environmental, economic, and health risks will increase. This dramatic increase in temperature is not only threatening wildlife and the environment, but also the lives of humans. Even though humans are negatively impacted by climate change, they are also the main contributors to it. The United States is the second leader in global warming pollution behind China and makes up about sixteen percent of all carbon dioxide emissions. Protecting the planet and the environment is an important value because it is home to all living things and nature plays a key role in human health and well being. Humans are the most powerful and dangerous inhabitants of this world and they have a duty to protect it. International governments must take immediate action against global warming and find alternative energy sources to reduce the negative effects of global warming on the planet. Protecting the planet and the environment is an important ideal that must be enforced and upheld. Human activities are greatly contributing to global warming as they release more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases are natural gases in the atmosphere that trap heat. These gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases. The trapping of heat in Earth’s atmosphere is known as the greenhouse effect, and is necessary to support life. However, an excess amount of these gases in the atmosphere, such as what is currently occurring, can cause a great deal of harm. According to National Geographic, deforestation is also another cause of global warming, and as more humans cut down trees for construction and agricultural purposes, more carbon dioxide is being released into the air since trees absorb greenhouse gases. Research has proven that â€Å"one days deforestation is equivalent to the carbon footprint of eight million people flying to New York.† (Global Warming). As more trees and forests are being cut down for human benefit , more greenhouse gases are entering the atmosphere and fueling global warming. The effects of global warming are very grave and cause serious problems for present and future generations. These effects don’t only impact animals and plants and their environments, but humans as well. Global warming triggers droughts and heat waves as temperatures climb. These periods of dryness and heat can lead to wildfires, like the ones we have been experiencing in California, that are leading to mass destruction and ruining the homes of many humans and animals. Global warming can also cause a rise of sea level in the ocean. Evidence has shown that as â€Å" air and water temperatures rise, ice caps and glaciers will melt, causing sea level to rise as well† (Global Warming). As more and more ice caps and glaciers melt due to higher temperatures, the water is seeping into the oceans and causing the sea level rise, which could lead to more floods in coastal areas. Many plants and animals could also go extinct as a result of climate change since many species cannot handle and adapt to these changes. This would result in a loss of biodiversity, which is a serious price to pay for the burning of fossil fuels and human induced causes of global warming since plants and animals are such precious and necessary attributes to the planet. Another dire effect of global warming is the spreading of diseases since the warmer temperatures are more suitable for organisms like mosquitoes that carry viruses. According to Justin Gillis, a New York Times environmental reporter, â€Å"global warming is likely to increase the range and speed of the life cycle of the particular mosquitoes carrying these viruses, encouraging their spread deeper into temperate countries like the United States† (Gillis). Evidence has demonstrated that the warmer the temperature is the faster these mosquitoes and other disease-carrying insects can develop from egg to adult and the faster they can â€Å"incubate viruses† (Monaghan). Global warming negatively impacts the planet and its inhabitants in a variety of ways that all inflict harm and danger. However, there are solutions that national governments can implement to help reduce the severity of these negative impacts on the planet. Coal is a very expensive source of power which many developing countries are struggling to obtain, so if wind energy prices kept on decreasing it would attract many consumers towards it and away from coal . Wind is also a very available and easily attainable element unlike carbon which must be excavated. This could save money in the future since it would eliminate the need to buy the tools needed to provide this coal or oil. Solar energy is an affordable and reliable energy source that can reduce the effects of global warming on the planet. Solar panels, also known as photovoltaics, take light energy from the sun and convert it to electricity: â€Å"PV [photovoltaic] ability to generate electricity while producing no atmospheric emissions or greenhouse gases marks it as a technology of choiceOver the course of a year, it saves about the same amount of carbon dioxide that a car emits during that period† (Glenn Hamer). This renewable energy source is very beneficial since it paves a way for a clean environment. Solar energy is one of the best alternatives to fossil fuels since the sun is a natural source of energy that can be exploited for the benefit of humans, while also protecting the planet from harmful carbon dioxide emissions. There is not an unlimited amount of coal in the environment, while the sun is always available and energy from it is extremely dependable and reliable. Excavating and extracting coal also requires a lot of man power, while solar panel manufacturing and maintenance does not exude the same level of work and destruction. Brown claimed that â€Å"In industrial nations, most installations reduce the consumers dependence on grid-supplied electricity, much of it originating from coal. (Brown). This also supports that a transition to this renewable energy source will help decrease the detrimental effects of global warming since it removes the necessity and use of coal and natural gases which harms the atmosphere. Harming the atmosphere goes against human morals and values of protecting the environment and planet. If national governments implement a more strict policy to utilize solar energy, people will quickly become more accustomed to it and grow less dependent on coal to perform the same job that a clean energy source does. Providing tax benefits and credits on clean energy sources like solar energy will also encourage people to make the transition, if not for saving the environment then for saving more money. According to Glenn Hamer, the former executive director of the Solar Energy Industries Association, â€Å"A 2.5 kW system (enough to power a typical home) covers less than 400 square feet of rooftop† (Hamer). Solar energy is also very suitable because it provides clean and safe energy and does not take up much space. Many people may worry about the design of solar panels and the aesthetic since having a sheek, modern home is desired during this time period; but if it could help save the environment, a small amount of space on the roof is a small price to pay. People worry about the beauty of their homes, but the planet is also their home, and if measures are not taken to prevent its pollution, its beauty will be destroyed as well. Advances in technology are developing rapidly in this time p eriod, allowing for more ways that could be developed to modify the solar panels to make them more efficient, inexpensive, and desirable. Reducing the effects of global warming can also be easily accomplished by switching to hybrid cars, instead of cars that run on gasoline. Hybrid cars have a gasoline and an electric motor and conserve more gas than regular cars. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, the combustion of fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline for transportation purposes is the second largest producer of carbon dioxide emissions (Overview of Greenhouse Gases). Driving cars with alternative sources of fuel that emit less carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, like hybrid cars, will extremely protect the environment against global warming. Research has shown that â€Å"In the United States, if all motorists shifted to cars with hybrid engines, such as the Toyota Prius or the Honda Insight, gasoline use could be cut in half† (Brown). Hybrid cars have both a gasoline powered motor and an electric motor. This allows for a higher gas mileage than most other cars at around forty e ight to sixty miles per gallon. Although hybrid cars may cost more initially, the amount of money saved on gas will pay off in the end. Better transmissions and engines will immensely benefit the environment and if more and more people switch to hybrid cars, the carbon footprint that gasoline- powered cars leave on the planet will begin to diminish. The problem with hybrid cars is that people prefer to have cars that are more powerful and have a better and modern design. Although these desirable cars may look nice, they are very harmful to the planet and are contributing to the negative aspects of climate change. If national governments were to offer some sort of benefit or reward to the people that purchase hybrid cars, it may encourage more people to do so. If that tactic proves to be weak and inefficient, national government may have to look at a more forceful approach to implementing the use of hybrid cars instead of gasoline powered ones. Also, lowering the price of hybrid cars would make them more attainable and desirable Most families own more than one car, so if one of those cars was a hybrid, that would be a great start to making a full transition to these clean and environmentally friendly vehicles. Developed countries must bear the responsibility of taking the lead in reducing the effects of global warming and finding alternative energy sources. Developed and powerful countries like the United States and many European countries have the resources, technologies, and capabilities of making a monumental difference in preventing the planet from reaching an unrecoverable state with global warming. Curtis Doebbler, an international human rights lawyer declared, â€Å"Developed countries contribute very little to the enormous costs of mitigation and adaptation, and their representatives in climate talks refuse to extend and strengthen emissions limits, contrary to those of developing countries† (Doebbler). Even though they have the most power to make a change, these developed countries are the ones most resistant to performing the actions needed to fight global warming. To take it a step further, richer countries believe it is the responsibility of the developing countries to t ake action. Most developing countries are on board with the drastic changes needed to be made. Since these countries do not have as many resources, they will be the ones most harmed by global warming. Mass deforestation is also apparent in developing nations, as these countries must free space in order to build factories to produce the items that people in developed countries buy every day. As stated before, deforestation is a major contributor to carbon emissions since trees absorb the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and regulate the flow of water. Developing countries have already experienced loss of biodiversity, contamination, and the other negative effects of global warming, and taking on any more of the burden will place them in a condition that is much more dangerous than their current one. â€Å"There is a difference between the emissions of developing countries which are â€Å"survival† emissions and those of developed countries which are in the nature of â€Å"lifestyle† emissions† (Saran). The emissions of the developing countries are somewhat justified because they are for survival purposes and there is nothing else they can do while developing countries have other options and a healthy portion of their emissions are for selfish and unnecessary reasons. For this reasons, the core countries must take the burden of tremendously reducing their emissions and finding other energy sources that will reduce global warming and provide these solutions to developing countries. Developed countries who will have the least to lose must take action to save the people of their country and the countries that are not strong enough to take action. There are several cities and countries that have already taken steps to find alternative energy sources to improve the destructive outcomes of global warming. Portland, Oregon is a very environmentally friendly city and has taken many measures to utilize clean and safe energy sources. This green city was the first United States city to create a plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and has â€Å"aggressively pushed green building initiatives† (Green Cities). Portland also employs an effective transportation system of buses and many bike lanes to help keep cars off the road. In addition, â€Å"Portlanders recycle 63 percent of their waste, which is one of the highest rates in the U.S.†(Travel Portland). This demonstrates that it is possible to convert to more â€Å"green† ways that protect the environment, and try to eliminate as much of carbon emissions as possible. This way of life is accepted and encouraged by the population of Portland, and if this city can make such changes, so can the rest of American cities in order to make an immense difference. Another city that implements a clean way of life is Curitiba, Brazil. Mark Holston, a journalist on Latin American topics, proclaimed, â€Å"The success of the surface transportation system has taken thousands of personal vehicles off the street, reducing congestion and dramatically cutting air pollution† (Holston). Curitiba is the greenest city in Brazil, and has many parks that also serve as stormwater management facilities. Unlike Cubatao, Curitiba has an efficient transport system that plays a critical role in reducing the carbon emissions caused by the flood of cars on the streets. Reykjavik, Iceland is another example of a city that uses different methods to reach a healthy and safe condition. Investigations of the city’s energy sources demonstrated that â€Å"like the rest of the country, its heat and electricity come entirely from geothermal and hydropower sources and it’s determined to become fossil-fuel-free by 2050† (Green Cities). This illustrates that there are several places that have actually taken a stand against global warming and made a lasting change on their environment. It is possible to take these measures, hopefully, these cities will set an example and encourage others around the world, like the U.S., to also make a change. Many United States citizens believe that they are immune to the effects of global warming, but that is obviously not true. However, if America follows in the footsteps of these cities and countries and makes drastic changes, the destructive effects of global warming will lessen. Conclusion Admittedly, many people may argue that renewable energy sources, like solar energy, are not suitable solutions to global warming. Howard C. Hayden, the editor of The Energy Advocates, claims â€Å"Most people cannot afford to cover even part, let alone the entire south-facing roof with solar collectors† (Hayden). He argues that solar energy is too expensive and that many people will not be able to afford it, thus making it inaccessible and a poor alternative to fossil fuels. Glenn Hamer provides a different viewpoint and declares, â€Å"As the industry has grown over the past 25 years, the cost of PV has declined by several orders of magnitude. The PV industry estimates that the system price paid by the end user will be $3-4 per watt in 2010† (Hamer). The price for solar panels has decreased over the years, and will continue to decrease in the future and be available to all countries. It is the responsibility of the developed countries to provide solar panels to those c ountries and people who cannot afford it, or to lower the overall cost of solar panels. In the end, solar and wind energy prove to be cleaner and safer than fossil fuels and the price to pay for these renewable energy sources is much less than the price of the harmful consequences of global warming. Protecting the planet is a value and a mission that must be upheld and carried out, and if not, the duty as humans and civilians living on this planet will not be executed. Rich, developed countries must take responsibility and respond to global warming before it reaches a level where it can no longer be fixed. Countries must work together to find ways to target all aspects contributing to global warming and use the advanced technology that continues to be modified today to eliminate these harmful factors. Each individual can play a part in fighting the threatening conditions of global warming. Their roles can be as small as switching to reusable water bottles instead of plastic ones, using CFL or LED light bulbs instead of traditional incandescent ones, and using public transportation systems. If no action is taken, the problem will continue to progress and become even more severe, endangering future generations.